Carbon nanotube binding peptides

ABSTRACT

Peptides have been generated that have binding affinity to carbon nanostructures and particularly carbon nanotubes. Peptides of or the invention are generally about twelve amino acids in length. Methods for generating carbon nanotube binding peptides are also disclosed.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 60/413,273 filed on Sep. 25, 2002 and U.S. Application 60/385,696 filed on Jun. 4, 2002.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods, and compositions useful for manipulation, purification and characterization of carbon nanotubes. More specifically, the invention relates to peptides that bind carbon based nanostructures, their synthesis and methods of use.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) have been the subject of intense research since their discovery in 1991. CNT's possess unique properties such as small size and electrical conductivity, which makes them suitable in a wide range of applications, including use as structural materials in molecular electronics, nanoelectronic components, and field emission displays. Carbon nanotubes may be either multi-walled (MWNTs) or single-walled (SWNTs), and have diameters in the nanometer range. Depending on their atomic structure CNT's may have either metallic or semiconductor properties, and these properties, in combination with their small dimensions makes them particularly attractive for use in fabrication of nano-devices.

One of the drawbacks to the implementation of CNT's in nano-device fabrication processes is the difficulty in obtaining samples of CNT's that have uniform lengths, or chirality. Additionally, no facile method is available for the immobilization and manipulation of CNT's for nano-device fabrication.

Most methods of CNT synthesis produce a product that is a mixture of entangled tubes of “ropes”, giving CNT's differing in diameter, chirality, and in the number of walls. Various methods such as acid washing, ultra-sonification, polymer wrapping and use of surfactants have been employed for nanotube separation (J. Liu et al. Science 280, 1253 (1998); A. G. Rinzler, Appl. Phys. 67, 29 (1998); A. C. Dillion et al. Adv. Mater. 11, 1354 (1999); (Schlittler et al. Science 292:1136 (2001)).). However, there has been no report of a method for the specific disentangling of nanotube ropes or their separation into populations having discrete sizes, chirality or conducting properties.

Because of their ability to specifically recognize substrates, various proteins represent one possible route to solving the CNT separation/purification problem as well as providing a possible means for CNT immobilization. Some attempts have been made to raise antibodies to various carbon based structures. For example, Chen et al. (WO 01/16155 A1) used conjugated fullerenes to raise monoclonal antibodies to C₆₀ fullerene as a hapten. However, the population of antibodies raised by immunization of mice with this C₆₀ fullerene derivative which was conjugated to bovine thyroglobulin included a sub-population that cross reacted with a C₇₀ fullerene. No attempts have been made to date to raise antibodies to carbon based nanotubes.

Since its introduction in 1985 phage display has been widely used to discover a variety of ligands including peptides, proteins and small molecules for drug targets. (Dixit, S., J. of Sci. & Ind. Research, 57, 173-183, 1998). The applications have expanded to other areas such as studying protein folding, novel catalytic activities and DNA-binding proteins with novel specificities. Whaley et al (Nature, 405:665 (2000)) has used phage display technique to identify peptide sequences that can bind specifically to different crystallographic forms of inorganic semiconductor substrates. Although the method of generating large, diverse peptide libraries with phage display has been known for some time, it has not been applied to the problem of finding peptides that may be useful in the binding and manipulation of CNT's.

The problem to be solved, therefore, is to provide materials that have binding specificity to CNT's and other carbon based nanostructures so that they may be used in separation and immobilization of these structures for the fabrication of nano-devices. Applicants have solved the stated problem by providing a series of carbon nanotube binding peptides with high affinity and specificity for CNT's.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect the invention provides a process for generating a carbon nanostructure binding peptide comprising:

-   -   a) providing a library of randomly generated peptides;     -   b) providing a sample of a carbon nanostructure;     -   c) contacting the library of (a) with the carbon nanostructure         of (b) whereby a subset of the peptide library of (a) binds to         said nanostructure to create a first peptide sub-library;     -   d) screening the first peptide sub-library of (c) for the         presence of multiples of the same sequence wherein the existence         of at least one multiple of a sequence indicates a carbon         nanostructure binding peptide.

Preferred methods of generating the peptides of the invention include phage display, bacterial display, yeast display and combinatorial solid phase peptide synthesis.

The invention additionally provides a carbon nanotube binding peptide having an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1-24, SEQ ID NOs:35-39, SEQ ID NOs:40-85, SEQ ID NOs:86-113, SEQ ID NOs:114-147, and SEQ ID NOs:148-177 or an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1-24, SEQ ID NOs:35-39, SEQ ID NOs:40-85, SEQ ID NOs:86-113, SEQ ID NOs:114-147, and SEQ ID NOs:148-177 wherein the sequence contains at least one amino acid substitution with a chemically equivalent amino acid.

In another embodiment the invention provides a method of immobilizing a carbon nanotube comprising:

-   -   a) immobilizing a carbon nanotube binding peptide having the         general structure:         N-M-C     -   wherein:         -   N is the N-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4             amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophilic;         -   M is the median portion of the peptide having about 4 amino             acids, 75% of which are hydrophobic; and         -   C is the C-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4             amino acids 75% of which are hydrophilic; and     -   b) contacting a carbon nanostructure with the immobilized         peptide of (a) whereby the nanostructure is immobilized.

In another embodiment the invention provides a method of dispersing a population of carbon nanotube ropes comprising:

-   -   a) providing a population of carbon nanotubes in solution in         rope formation; and     -   b) contacting the population of carbon nanotubes of step (a)         with a carbon nanotube binding peptide having the general         structure:         N-M-C     -   wherein:         -   N is the N-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4             amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophilic;         -   M is the median portion of the peptide having about 4 amino             acids, 75% of which are hydrophobic; and         -   C is the C-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4             amino acids 75% of which are hydrophilic;     -   whereby the carbon nanotube ropes are dispersed.

Additionally the invention provides a process for generating a carbon nanostructure binding peptide comprising:

-   -   a) providing a library of phages expressing peptides in         solution;     -   b) providing a population of carbon nanostructures;     -   c) contacting the phage of (a) with the nanostructures of (b)         for a time sufficient to permit binding of the phage to the         nanostructures and form a phage-nanostructure complex;     -   d) removing unbound phage;     -   e) contacting the phage-nanostructure complex of (c) with a         suitable bacterial host whereby the bacteria are infected by the         phage;     -   f) growing the infected bacteria of step (e) for a time         sufficient to permit replication of the phage and the expressed         peptide; and     -   g) isolating the replicated phage and expressed peptide of         step (f) wherein the peptide binds carbon nanostructures.

Also provided herein are methods for assembling carbon nanotubes comprising contacting a solid substrate coated with at least one species of carbon nanotube binding peptide with a population of carbon nanotubes whereby the carbon nanotubes bind to the coated substrate and are assembled.

Additionally useful in the present invention are non-CNT binding peptides having the amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:28 and SEQ ID NO:34.

Provided herein are also compositions comprising a solid substrate coated with a carbon nanotube binding peptide, as well as compositions comprising a solid substrate coated with a carbon nanotube binding peptide having at least one carbon nanotube bound thereto.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES AND SEQUENCE LISTINGS

FIG. 1 is a TEM image of phages with carbon nanotube binding peptides on surface of carbon nanotubes.

FIG. 2A is an electronmicrograph of untreated nanotubes ropes.

FIG. 2B is an electronmicrograph of single walled nanotubes treated with carbon nanotube binding peptide as set forth in SEQ ID NO:13.

FIG. 2C is an electronmicrograph of single walled nanotubes treated with a control peptide, having little or no binding affinity for CNT's.

FIG. 3A is an electronmicrograph of a microsphere coated with a non-CNT binding control phage after exposure to SWNT.

FIG. 3B is an electronmicrograph of a microsphere coated with a CNT-binding phage after exposure to SWNT.

FIG. 3C is an electronmicrograph of a microsphere coated with a non-CNT binding peptide after exposure to SWNT.

FIG. 3D is an electronmicrograph of a microsphere coated with a CNT binding peptide after exposure to SWNT.

The following sequences conform with 37 C.F.R. 1.821-1.825 (“Requirements for Patent Applications Containing Nucleotide Sequences and/or Amino Acid Sequence Disclosures—the Sequence Rules”) and consistent with World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Standard ST.25 (1998) and the sequence listing requirements of the EPO and PCT (Rules 5.2 and 49.5(a-bis), and Section 208 and Annex C of the Administrative Instructions). The symbols and format used for nucleotide and amino acid sequence data comply with the rules set forth in 37 C.F.R. §1.822.

SEQ ID Nos:1-24 and 35-39 are carbon nanotube binding peptides of the invention.

SEQ ID NOs:25, and 32 are derivatized carbon nanotube binding peptides having a polyglycine tail.

SEQ ID Nos:26 and 27 are mutant carbon nanotube binding peptides having a serine substituted in place of a tryptophan at position 6.

SEQ ID NO:28 is a control peptide that have little or no binding affinity for carbon nanostructures.

SEQ ID NO:29 is a charged portion of a carbon nanotube binding peptide.

SEQ ID NO:30 is a polar portion of a carbon nanotube binding peptide.

SEQ ID NO:31 is a hydrophobic portion of a carbon nanotube binding peptide.

SEQ ID NO:33 is a primer used for sequencing M13 phage.

SEQ ID NO:34 is a non-CNT binding peptide.

SEQ ID NOs:40-85 are peptides raised against and binding to single walled nanotoubes.

SEQ ID NOs:86-147 and 177 are peptides raised against and binding to multiwalled carbon nanotubes.

SEQ ID NOs:148-176 are peptides raised against and binding to graphite cleaned carbon nanotubes.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides various carbon nanotube binding peptides generated by the process of peptide phage display. The peptides are useful for the manipulation of carbon based nanostructures in the fabrication of nano-devices as well as in the separation and purification of nanotubes from mixed CNT populations.

The peptides of the invention are particularly useful as ligands for the assembly of carbon nanotubes and related molecules into conducting nano devices for use in electronic applications such as field-emission transistors, artificial actuators, molecular-filtration membranes, energy-absorbing materials, molecular transistors, and other optoelectronic devices as well as in gas storage, single-electron devices, and chemical and biological sensors.

In this disclosure, a number of terms and abbreviations are used. The following definitions are provided.

“CNBP” means Carbon nanotube binding peptide

“HRTEM” means high-resolution transmission electron microscopy

“MWNT” means Multi-walled nanotube

“SWNT” means Single walled nanotube

“PEG” means polyethylene glycol

“pfu” means plaque forming units

“TEM” means transmission electron microscopy

“CNT” means carbon nanotube

The term “peptide” refers to two or more amino acids joined to each other by peptide bonds or modified peptide bonds. Peptides include those modified either by natural processes, such as processing and other post-translational modifications, but also chemical modification techniques. The modifications can occur anywhere in a peptide, including the peptide backbone, the amino acid side chain, and the amino or carboxyl terminal. Examples of modifications include but are not limited to amidation, acylation, acetylation, cross linking, cyclization, glycosylation, hydroxylation, phosphorylation, racemization, and covalent attachment of various moieties such as nucleotide or nucleotide derivative, lipid or lipid derivatives (see, for instance, Proteins—Structure and Molecular Properties, 2^(nd) Ed Creighton, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1993) and Post-translation covalent Modification of Proteins, B. C. Johnson, Ed., Academic Press, New York (1983)).

As used herein, the term “peptide” and “polypeptide” will be used interchangeably.

The term “nanotube” refers to a hollow article having a narrow dimension (diameter) of about 1-200 nm and a long dimension (length), where the ratio of the long dimension to the narrow dimension, i.e., the aspect ratio, is at least 5. In general, the aspect ratio is between 10 and 2000.

By “carbon-based nanotubes” or “carbon nanotube” herein is meant hollow structures composed primarily of carbon atoms. The carbon nanotube can be doped with other elements, e.g., metals.

The term “carbon nanotube product” refers to cylindrical structures made of rolled-up graphene sheet, either single-wall carbon nanotubes or multi-wall carbon nanotubes.

The term “carbon nanotube rope” means a population of non-aligned nanotubes.

The term “carbon nanostructure binding peptide” refers to peptides that were selected to bind with a carbon nanostructures. Where peptides are generated with specific affinity to carbon nanotubes, these peptides will be referred to as carbon nanotube binding peptides or CNBP's.

The term “stringency” as it is applied to the selection of CNBP's means the concentration of eluting agent (usually detergent) used to elute peptides from CNT's.

The term “peptide-nanotube complex” means structure comprising a peptide bound to a nanotube via a binding site on the peptide.

The term “nano-structure” means tubes, rods, cylinders, bundles, wafers, disks, sheets, plates, planes, cones, slivers, granules, ellipsoids, wedges, polymeric fibers, natural fibers, and other such objects which have at least one characteristic dimension less than about 100 nm.

The term “solid substrate” means a material to which a carbon nanotube or binding peptide may be affixed either by direct chemical means or via an intermediate material such as a coating.

The term “identity” refers to a relationship between two or more polynucleotide sequences or two or more polypeptide sequences, as determined by comparing the sequences. “Identity” and “similarity” can be readily calculated by known methods including but not limited to those described in (Sequence Analysis in Molecular Biology, Von Heinje, G., Academic Press, 1987, Sequence analysis Primer, Gribskov, M. and Devereux, J., eds., M Stockton Press, New York, 1991, and Computer Analysis of Sequence Data, Part 1, Griffin, A. M., and Griffin, H. G., eds, Humana Press, New Jersey, 1994.

The term “amino acid” will refer to the basic chemical structural unit of a protein or polypeptide. The following abbreviations will be used herein to identify specific amino acids: Three-Letter One-Letter Amino Acid Abbreviation Abbreviation Alanine Ala A Arginine Arg R Asparagine Asn N Aspartic acid Asp D Asparagine or aspartic acid Asx B Cysteine Cys C Glutamine Gln Q Glutamine acid Glu E Glutamine or glutamic acid Glx Z Glycine Gly G Histidine His H Leucine Leu L Lysine Lys K Methionine Met M Phenylalanine Phe F Proline Pro P Serine Ser S Threonine Thr T Tryptophan Trp W Tyrosine Tyr Y Valine Val V

The term “variant(s)” refers to a polynucleotide, or polypeptide, that differs from a reference polynucleotide, or polypeptide, respectively, but retains essential properties. Changes in the nucleotide sequence of the variant may or may not alter the amino acid sequence of polypeptide encoded by the reference polynucleotide. Nucleotide changes may result in amino acid substitutions, deletions, additions, fusions, and truncations in the polypeptide encoded by the reference sequence. A typical variant of a polypeptide may differ in amino acid sequence from another reference polypeptide by one or more substitutions, additions, deletions in any combinations. A substituted or inserted amino acid residue may or may not be one encoded by the genetic code. A variant of a polynucleotide or polypeptide may be a naturally occurring such as allelic variant, or may not be known as naturally occurring variant. Non-naturally occurring variants of polynucleotides and polypeptides may be made by direct synthesis, mutagenesis techniques, or by other recombinant methods known in the art.

The term “chemically equivalent amino acid” will refer to an amino acid that may be substituted for another in a given protein without altering the chemical or functional nature of that protein. For example, it is well known in the art that alterations in a gene which result in the production of a chemically equivalent amino acid at a given site, but do not effect the functional properties of the encoded protein are common. For the purposes of the present invention substitutions are defined as exchanges within one of the following five groups:

Hydrophobic

-   -   Small aliphatic, nonpolar or slightly polar residues: Ala, Ser,         Thr Pro, Gly;     -   Large aliphatic, nonpolar residues: Met, Leu, Ile, Val Cys; and     -   Large aromatic residues: Phe, Tyr, Trp;         Hydrophilic:     -   Polar, negatively charged residues and their amides: Asp, Asn,         Glu, Gln;     -   Polar, positively charged residues: His, Arg, Lys;         Thus, alanine, a hydrophobic amino acid, may be substituted by         another less hydrophobic residue (such as glycine) or a more         hydrophobic residue (such as valine, leucine, or isoleucine).         Similarly, changes which result in substitution of one         negatively charged residue for another (such as aspartic acid         for glutamic acid) or one positively charged residue for another         (such as lysine for arginine) can also be expected to produce a         functionally equivalent product. Additionally, in many cases,         alterations of the N-terminal and C-terminal portions of the         protein molecule would also not be expected to alter the         activity of the protein.

“Gene” refers to a nucleic acid fragment that expresses a specific protein, including regulatory sequences preceding (5′ non-coding sequences) and following (3′ non-coding sequences) the coding sequence. “Native gene” refers to a gene as found in nature with its own regulatory sequences. “Chimeric gene” refers to any gene that is not a native gene, comprising regulatory and coding sequences that are not found together in nature. Accordingly, a chimeric gene may comprise regulatory sequences and coding sequences that are derived from different sources, or regulatory sequences and coding sequences derived from the same source, but arranged in a manner different than that found in nature. A “foreign” gene refers to a gene not normally found in the host organism, but that is introduced into the host organism by gene transfer. Foreign genes can comprise native genes inserted into a non-native organism, or chimeric genes.

“Synthetic genes” can be assembled from oligonucleotide building blocks that are chemically synthesized using procedures known to those skilled in the art. These building blocks are ligated and annealed to form gene segments which are then enzymatically assembled to construct the entire gene. “Chemically synthesized”, as related to a sequence of DNA, means that the component nucleotides were assembled in vitro. Manual chemical synthesis of DNA may be accomplished using well established procedures, or automated chemical synthesis can be performed using one of a number of commercially available machines. Accordingly, the genes can be tailored for optimal gene expression based on optimization of nucleotide sequence to reflect the codon bias of the host cell. The skilled artisan appreciates the likelihood of successful gene expression if codon usage is biased towards those codons favored by the host. Determination of preferred codons can be based on a survey of genes derived from the host cell where sequence information is available.

“Coding sequence” refers to a DNA sequence that codes for a specific amino acid sequence. “Suitable regulatory sequences” refer to nucleotide sequences located upstream (5′ non-coding sequences), within, or downstream (3′ non-coding sequences) of a coding sequence, and which influence the transcription, RNA processing or stability, or translation of the associated coding sequence. Regulatory sequences may include promoters, translation leader sequences, introns, polyadenylation recognition sequences, RNA processing site, effector binding site and stem-loop structure.

“Promoter” refers to a DNA sequence capable of controlling the expression of a coding sequence or functional RNA. In general, a coding sequence is located 3′ to a promoter sequence. Promoters may be derived in their entirety from a native gene, or be composed of different elements derived from different promoters found in nature, or even comprise synthetic DNA segments. It is understood by those skilled in the art that different promoters may direct the expression of a gene in different tissues or cell types, or at different stages of development, or in response to different environmental or physiological conditions. Promoters which cause a gene to be expressed in most cell types at most times are commonly referred to as “constitutive promoters”. It is further recognized that since in most cases the exact boundaries of regulatory sequences have not been completely defined, DNA fragments of different lengths may have identical promoter activity.

The term “expression”, as used herein, refers to the transcription and stable accumulation of sense (mRNA) or antisense RNA derived from the nucleic acid fragment of the invention. Expression may also refer to translation of mRNA into a polypeptide.

The term “transformation” refers to the transfer of a nucleic acid fragment into the genome of a host organism, resulting in genetically stable inheritance. Host organisms containing the transformed nucleic acid fragments are referred to as “transgenic” or “recombinant” or “transformed” organisms.

The term “host cell” refers to cell which has been transformed or transfected, or is capable of transformation or transfection by an exogenous polynucleotide sequence.

The terms “plasmid”, “vector” and “cassette” refer to an extra chromosomal element often carrying genes which are not part of the central metabolism of the cell, and usually in the form of circular double-stranded DNA molecules. Such elements may be autonomously replicating sequences, genome integrating sequences, phage or nucleotide sequences, linear or circular, of a single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA, derived from any source, in which a number of nucleotide sequences have been joined or recombined into a unique construction which is capable of introducing a promoter fragment and DNA sequence for a selected gene product along with appropriate 3′ untranslated sequence into a cell. “Transformation cassette” refers to a specific vector containing a foreign gene and having elements in addition to the foreign gene that facilitate transformation of a particular host cell. “Expression cassette” refers to a specific vector containing a foreign gene and having elements in addition to the foreign gene that allow for enhanced expression of that gene in a foreign host.

The term “phage” or “bacteriophage” refers to a virus that infects bacteria. Altered forms may be used for the purpose of the present invention. The preferred bacteriophages are derived from two “wild” phages, called M13 and lambda. Lambda phages are used to clone segments of DNA in the range of around 10-20 kb. They are lytic phages. i.e., they replicate by lysing their host cell and releasing more phages. The M13 system can grow inside a bacterium, so that it does not destroy the cell it infects but causes it to make new phages continuously. It is a single-stranded DNA phage.

The term “phage display” refers to the display of functional foreign peptides or small proteins on the surface of bacteriophage or phagemid particles. Genetically engineered phage could be used to present peptides as segments of their native surface proteins. Peptide libraries may be produced by populations of phage with different gene sequences.

Standard recombinant DNA and molecular cloning techniques used here are well known in the art and are described by Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F. and Maniatis, T., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989) (hereinafter “Maniatis”); and by Silhavy, T. J., Bennan, M. L. and Enquist, L. W., Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Cold Press Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984); and by Ausubel, F. M. et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, published by Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley-Interscience (1987).

The present invention provides peptides that bind carbon nanostructures as well as methods for generating the same and uses thereof.

Carbon Nanostructures

The invention relates to the generation of peptides with binding affinities for carbon nanostuctures, and particularly nanotubes. Carbon nano-structures of the present invention are those structures comprised at primarily of carbon which take the form of tubes, rods, cylinders, bundles, wafers, disks, sheets, plates, planes, cones, slivers, granules, ellipsoids, wedges, polymeric fibers, natural fibers, and other such objects which have at least one characteristic dimension less than about 100 nm. Preferred carbon nanostructures of the invention are nanotubes.

Nanotubes of the invention are generally about 1-200 nm in diameter where the ratio of the length dimension to the narrow dimension, i.e., the aspect ratio, is at least 5. In general, the aspect ratio is between 10 and 2000. Carbon nanotubes are comprised primarily of carbon atoms, however may be doped with other elements, e.g., metals. The carbon-based nanotubes of the invention can be either multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) or single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs). A MWNT, for example, includes several concentric nanotubes each having a different diameter. Thus, the smallest diameter tube is encapsulated by a larger diameter tube, which in turn, is encapsulated by another larger diameter nanotube. A SWNT, on the other hand, includes only one nanotube.

Carbon nanotubes (CNT) may be produced by a variety of methods, and are additionally commercially available. Methods of CNT synthesis include laser vaporization of graphite (A. Thess et al. Science 273, 483 (1996)), arc discharge (C. Journet et al., Nature 388, 756 (1997)) and HiPCo (high pressure carbon monoxide) process (P. Nikolaev et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 313, 91-97 (1999)). Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) can also be used in producing carbon nanotubes (J. Kong et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 292, 567-574 (1998); J. Kong et al. Nature 395, 878-879 (1998); A. Cassell et al. J. Phys. Chem. 103, 6484-6492 (1999); H. Dai et al. J. Phys. Chem. 103, 11246-11255 (1999)).

Additionally CNT's may be grown via catalytic processes both in solution and on solid substrates (Yan Li, et al., Chem. Mater.; 2001; 13(3); 1008-1014); (N. Franklin and H. Dai Adv. Mater. 12, 890 (2000); A. Cassell et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 7975-7976 (1999)).

Peptide Generation

Peptides of the invention are generated randomly and then selected against a population of carbon nanostructures for binding affinity to CNT's. The generation of random libraries of libraries of peptides is well known and may be accomplished by a variety of techniques-including, bacterial display (Kemp, D. J.; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78(7): 4520-4524, 1981, and Helfman, D. M., et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80(1): 31-35, 1983) yeast display (Chien C T, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991 Nov. 1; 88(21): 9578-82) combinatorial solid phase peptide synthesis (U.S. Pat. No. 5,449,754, U.S. Pat. No. 5,480,971, U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,275, U.S. Pat. No. 5,639,603) and phage display technology (U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409; U.S. Pat. No. 5,403,484; U.S. Pat. No. 5,571,698; U.S. Pat. No. 5,837,500). Techniques to generate such biological peptide libraries are described in Dani, M., J. of Receptor & Signal Transduction Res., 21(4), 447468 (2001).

A preferred method to randomly generate peptides is by phage display. Phage display is an in vitro selection technique in which a peptide or protein is genetically fused to a coat protein of a bacteriophage, resulting in display of fused protein on the exterior of phage viron, while the DNA encoding the fusion residues within the virion. This physical linkage between the displayed protein and the DNA encoding it allows screening of vast numbers of variants of proteins, each linked to a corresponding DNA sequence, by a simple in vitro selection procedure called “biopanning.” In its simplest form, biopanning is carried out by incubating the pool of phage-displayed variants with a target of interest that has been immobilized on a plate or bead, washing away unbound phage, and eluting specifically bound phage by disrupting the binding interactions between the phage and target. The eluted phage is then amplified in vivo and the process repeated, resulting in stepwise enrichment of the phage pool in favor of the tightest binding sequences. After 3 or more rounds of selection/amplification, individual clones are characterized by DNA sequencing.

Thus it is an object of the invention to provide a process for generating a carbon nanostructure binding peptide comprising:

-   -   a) providing a library of phages expressing peptides in         solution;     -   b) providing a population of carbon nanostructures;     -   c) contacting the phage of (a) with the nanostructures of (b)         for a time sufficient to permit binding of the phage to the         nanostructures and forming a phage-nanostructure complex;     -   d) removing unbound phage;     -   e) contacting the phage-nanostructure complex of (c) with a         suitable bacterial host whereby the bacteria are infected by the         phage;     -   f) growing the infected bacteria of step (e) for a time         sufficient to permit replication of the phage and the expressed         peptide; and     -   g) isolating the replicated phage and expressed peptide of         step (f) wherein the peptide binds carbon nanostructures.         Peptide Selection

After a suitable library of peptides has been generated they are then contacted with an appropriate population of carbon nanostructures or nanotubes. The nanotubes are presented to the library of peptides typically while suspended in solution, although it will be appreciated that CNT or peptides could also be immobilized on a solid substrate to facilitate binding. In such an embodiment suitable solid substrates will include but are not limited to silicon wafers, synthetic polymer substrates, such as polystyrene, polypropylene, polyglycidylmethacrylate, substituted polystyrene (e.g., aminated or carboxylated polystyrene; polyacrylamides; polyamides; polyvinylchlorides, etc.); glass, agarose, nitrocellulose, and nylon.

A preferred solution is a buffered aqueous saline solution containing a surfactant. A suitable solution is Tris-buffered saline with 0.1% Tween 20. The solution can additionally be agitated by any means in order to increase binding of the peptides to the nanotubes.

Upon contact a number of the randomly generated peptides will bind to the CNT's to form a peptide-nanotube complex. Unbound peptide and CNT may be removed by washing (if immobilized) or by any other means such as centrifugation, or filtering, etc. After all unbound material is removed, peptides, having varying degrees of binding affinities for CNT's may be fractionated by selected washings in buffers having varying strengths of surfactants. The higher the concentration of surfactant in the wash buffer, the higher the stringency of selection. Increasing the stringency used will increase the required strength of the bond between the peptide and nanotube in the peptide-nanotube complex.

A number of materials may be used to vary the stringency of the buffer solution in peptide selection including but not limited to acidic pH 1.5-3; basic pH 10-12.5; high salt concentrations such as MgCl2 3-5 M, LiCl 5-10 M; water; ethylene glycol 25-50%; dioxane 5-20%; thiocyanate 1-5 M; guanidine 2-5 M; urea 2-8 M; various concentrations of different surfactants such as SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate), DOC (sodium deoxycholate), Nonidet P-40, Triton X-100, Tween 20® wherein Tween 20® is preferred. The materials can be prepared in buffer solutions including but not limited to Tris-HCl, Tris-borate, Tris-acidic acid, triethylamine, phosphate buffer, glycine-HCl wherein 0.25M glycine-HCl solution is preferred.

It will be appreciated that peptides having greater and greater binding affinities for the CNT substrate may be eluted by repeating the selection process using buffers with increasing stringencies.

The eluted peptides can be identified, sequenced, and produced by any means known in the art.

Carbon Nanotube Binding Peptides

Peptides of the invention selected by the above process have been identified. A large number of peptides having particularly high binding affinities to carbon nanotubes were isolated having the amino acid sequences as set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1-24 and 35-177

It will be appreciated by the skilled artisan that the invention is not limited to these specific sequences but will include amino acid sequences comprising chemically equivalent amino acid substitutions that do not interfere with the ability of the peptide to bind CNT's. So for example, the chemically equivalent substitutions for each of the amino acids in SEQ ID NO:14 are detailed in the following table: SEQ ID NO: 14 His Trp Ser Ala Trp Trp Ile Arg Ser Asn Gln Ser Equivalent Lys Phe Pro Ser Phe Phe Lys Pro Asp Asp Pro Amino Acids Arg Tyr Ala Pro Tyr Tyr His Ala Glu Asn Ala Thr Thr Thr Gln Glu Thr Gly Gly Gly Gly

Alignment and analysis of the selected peptides of the invention suggests that the carbon nanostructure or nanotube binding properties are related to the secondary characteristics of the peptide. For example a simple pendant model was developed for the peptides of the instant invention, which accounts for hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity. It demonstrates that all of the consensus sequences are essentially symmetric surfactants—hydrophilic on the ends and hydrophobic in the middle. The model describes the degree of hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity of an amino acid pendant group by classifying all pendant groups as either hydrophilic (h=−1) or hydrophobic (h=1). Side chains which are either basic, acidic or uncharged polar are be hydrophilic while side chains that are nonpolar are hydrophobic. Several of the peptides selected by the methods of the invention are modeled below: (SEQ ID NO:1)  H A  H  S  Q W W  H L P  Y  R −1 1 −1 −1 −1 1 1 −1 1 1 −1 −1 (SEQ ID NO:13)  H W  K  H P W G A W  D  T L −1 1 −1 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 1 (SEQ ID NO:14)  H W  S A W W I  R  S  N  Q  S −1 1 −1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 (SEQ ID NO:8)  H  N W  Y  H W W M P  H  N  T −1 −1 1 −1 −1 1 1 1 1 −1 −1 −1 These peptides were selected over a broad range of detergent concentrations (0.6%-3%) and yet show the same pattern of hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity. With a few exceptions, the h=−1 are predominantly on the ends and h=1 are concentrated in the middle.

It is thus an object of the invention to provide a carbon nanotube binding peptides having the general structure: N-M-C Wherein:

N is the N-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophilic;

M is the median portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophobic; and

C is the C-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids 75% of which are hydrophilic.

Peptide Production by Recombinant Methods

Once a peptide having suitable binding properties is identified it may be produced recombinantly in large quantities. Genes encoding nanotube binding peptides may be produced in heterologous host cells, particularly in the cells of microbial hosts.

Preferred heterologous host cells for expression of nanotube binding peptides are microbial hosts that can be found broadly within the fungal or bacterial families and which grow over a wide range of temperature, pH values, and solvent tolerances. Because of transcription, translation and the protein biosynthetic apparatus is the same irrespective of the cellular feedstock, functional genes are expressed irrespective of carbon feedstock used to generate cellular biomass. Examples of host strains include but are not limited to fungal or yeast species such as Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Saccharomyces, Pichia, Candida, Hansenula, or bacterial species such as Salmonella, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Rhodococcus, Streptomyces, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Methylomonas, Methylobacter, Alcaligenes, Synechocystis, Anabaena, Thiobacillus, Methanobacterium and Klebsiella.

A variety of expression systems can be used to produce the peptides of the present invention. Such vectors include but are not limited to chromosomal, episomal and virus-derived vectors, e.g., vectors derived from bacterial plasmids, from bacteriophage, from transposons, from insertion elements, from yeast episoms, from viruses such as baculaviruses, retroviruses and vectors derived from combinations thereof such as those derived from plasmid and bacteriophage genetic elements, such as cosmids and phagemids. The expression system constructs may contain regulatory regions that regulate as well as engender expression. In general, any system or vector suitable to maintain, propagate or express polynucleotide or polypeptide in a host cell may be used for expression in this regard. Microbial expression systems and expression vectors contain regulatory sequences that direct high level expression of foreign proteins relative to the growth of the host cell. Regulatory sequences are well known to those skilled in the art and examples include but are not limited to those which cause the expression of a gene to be turned on or off in response to a chemical or physical stimulus, including the presence of a regulatory elements may also be present in the vector, for example, enhancer sequences. Any of these could be used to construct chimeric genes for production of the any of the nanotube binding peptides. These chimeric genes could then be introduced into appropriate microorganisms via transformation to provide high level expression of the peptides.

Vectors or cassettes useful for the transformation of suitable host cells are well known in the art. Typically the vector or cassette contains sequences directing transcription and translation of the relevant gene, one or more selectable markers, and sequences allowing autonomous replication or chromosomal integration. Suitable vectors comprise a region 5′ of the gene which harbors transcriptional initiation controls and a region 3′ of the DNA fragment which controls transcriptional termination. It is most preferred when both control regions are derived from genes homologous to the transformed host cell, although it is to be understood that such control regions need not be derived from the genes native to the specific species chosen as a production host. Selectable marker genes provide a phenotypic trait for selection of the transformed host cells such as tetracyclin or ampicillin resistance in E. coli.

The gene can be placed under the control of a promoter, ribosome binding site (for bacterial expression) and, optionally, an operator or control element, so that Initiation control regions or promoters, which are useful to drive expression of the instant ORF's in the desired host cell are numerous and familiar to those skilled in the art. Virtually any promoter capable of driving these genes is suitable for the present invention including but not limited to CYC1, HIS3, GAL1, GAL10, ADH1, PGK, PHO5, GAPDH, ADC1, TRP1, URA3, LEU2, ENO, TPI (useful for expression in Saccharomyces); AOX1 (useful for expression in Pichia); and lac, ara, tet, trp, IP_(L), IP_(R), T7, tac, and trc (useful for expression in Escherichia coli) as well as the amy, apr, npr promoters and various phage promoters useful for expression in Bacillus.

Termination control regions may also be derived from various genes native to the preferred hosts. Optionally, a termination site may be unnecessary, however, it is most preferred if included.

The vector containing the appropriate DNA sequence as here in above described, as well as an appropriate promoter or control sequence, may be employed to transform an appropriate host to permit the host to express the peptide of the present invention. Cell-free translation systems can also be employed to produce such peptides using RNAs derived from the DNA constructs of the present invention.

Optionally it may be desired to produce the instant gene product as a secretion product of the transformed host. Secretion of desired proteins into the growth media has the advantages of simplified and less costly purification procedures. It is well known in the art that secretion signal sequences are often useful in facilitating the active transport of expressible proteins across cell membranes. The creation of a transformed host capable of secretion may be accomplished by the incorporation of a DNA sequence that codes for a secretion signal which is functional in the host production host. Methods for choosing appropriate signal sequences are well known in the art (see for example EP 546049; WO 9324631). The secretion signal DNA or facilitator may be located between the expression-controlling DNA and the instant gene or gene fragment, and in the same reading frame with the latter.

Nano-Device Fabrication

The carbon nanotube binding peptides (CNBP) of the instant invention could be one element in an entity with bi-, tri- (or higher) binding functionality. A CNBP can be depicted graphically as shown below,

where the “C” is suggestive of a carbon nanotube and a binding functionality depicted by “⊂”. However, despite its being drawn at one end, it should be interpreted as a collective, not localized, property of the peptide sequence. The overall entity would be constructed by “fusion” of the CNBP with another body, depicted by “B”, with a binding functionality depicted by “>”, and the combination is represented graphically below

This is meant to represent a minimal example; the fusion could create higher order (enumerative) functionality. Examples of B include but are not limited to a DNA binding protein, a metallic electrode, for example Au bound directly to an amino-acid residue like cysteine, or a hard (e.g., Si or SiO₂) substrate for immobilization of the CNBP.

Directed self-assembly of carbon nanotubes into useful structures could be achieved by combining the binding of CNBP with a pre-patterned substrate. For example, if the binding functionality “B” was a series of cysteine residues, the sequence of (a) preparation of a dilute suspension of carbon nanotubes, (b) functionalization of selected types by CNBP, and (c) washing over a substrate with patterned Au electrodes would result in the attachment of carbon nanotubes to metal electrodes via the peptide, within distances of relevance to nano-electronic devices. Because of the diversity of the bio-chemical toolkit in combining elements to obtain higher order functionality, many other such methods can be conceived, once the fundamental binding motifs have been identified.

A major obstacle to the use of carbon nanotubes in a variety of applications is the fact that all manufacturing processes produce a mixture of entangled tubes. Individual tubes in the product differ in diameter, chirality, and number of walls. Moreover, long tubes show a strong tendency to aggregate into “ropes”. These ropes are formed due to the large surface areas of nanotubes and can contain tens to hundreds of nanotubes in one rope. Furthermore, the structure of individual tubes varies widely from armchair, zig-zag or other chiral forms which coexist in the material and their electrical properties also vary dramatically accordingly (metallic or semi-conductive). Therefore, a need exists for the isolation of a single form (such as armchair, zig-zag or a chiral form) of carbon nanotubes.

Existing methods for separating such product, for example acid washing, ultra-sonification, and use of surfactants, is non-specific with respect to the type of nanotube. Because peptide binding is usually highly specific, a major utility of a CNBP is to effect specific separation. One possible method would use dilute suspensions of carbon nanotubes separated by having them flow over substrates patterned with different types of binding CNBP's. One would choose to order the patterning based on strength and specificity of binding, i.e., strongly selective binding peptides would be positioned to act on the mixture in advance of less specific ones. Many other ways to achieve separation can be conceived. If “B” binds to a magnetic particle, the joint entity could be used in one stage of a continuous flow to bind to carbon nanotubes, while in another stage the bound nanotubes could be separated magnetically.

Thus it is an object of the invention to provide a method of dispersing a population of carbon nanotube ropes comprising:

-   -   a) providing a population of carbon nanotubes in solution in         rope formation; and     -   b) contacting the population of carbon nanotubes of step (a)         with a carbon nanotube binding peptide having the general         structure:         N-M-C     -   wherein:

N is the N-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophilic;

M is the median portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophobic; and

C is the C-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids 75% of which are hydrophilic;

whereby the carbon nanotube ropes are dispersed.

One of skill in the art will appreciate that it will be useful to sort populations of nanotubes to select for various binding properties. It is contemplated that CNT-binding peptides or isolated phage expressing a CNT binding peptide, may be used for this purpose. For example, CNT-binding peptides or phages expressing the same, having an affinity to a specific population of CNT's may be immobilized on a solid substrate and then contacted with a mixed population of CNT's. The desired CNT's will bind to the immobilized peptides or phage and the undesired CNT's may be washed free. Alternatively, solid substrates such as beads or microspheres may be coated with CNT-binding peptides or phage and used to assemble CNT's. Materials suitable as solid supports may be made of synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(4-methylbutene), polystyrene, polymethacrylate, poly(ethylene terephthalate), nylon, poly(vinyl butyrate), or other materials such as glass, ceramics, metals, and the like. These materials be used as films, microtiter plates, wells, beads, slides, particles, pins, pegs, or membranes.

Accordingly the invention a method for assembling carbon nanotubes comprising contacting a solid substrate coated with at least one species of carbon nanotube binding peptide with a population of carbon nanotubes whereby the carbon nanotubes bind to the coated substrate and are assembled.

It will be appreciated by the skilled artisan that patterning of CNT-binding peptides on a particular solid support will be a useful technique in the design and fabrication of nanodevices. In some instances patterning may be achieved by partially and selectively masking portions of the support with materials that repel or have no affinity for CNT's. A variety of materials may be used for this purpose, however non-CNT binding peptides of similar physical characteristics to CNT-binding peptides will be particularly suitable. Non-CNT binding peptides are easily selected and identified in the early rounds of any selection process for CNT-binding peptides. These may be used to mask a solid support to effect the pattering of CNT binding on the support. Several examples provided herein include the peptides set forth in SEQ ID NO:28 and 34.

EXAMPLES

The present invention is further defined in the following Examples. It should be understood that these Examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only. From the above discussion and these Examples, one skilled in the art can ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions.

General Methods

Standard recombinant DNA and molecular cloning techniques used in the Examples are well known in the art and are described by Sambrook, J., Fritsch, E. F. and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, (1989) (Maniatis) and by T. J. Silhavy, M. L. Bennan, and L. W. Enquist, Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984) and by Ausubel, F. M. et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, pub. by Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley-Interscience (1987).

Materials and methods suitable for the maintenance and growth of bacterial cultures are well known in the art. Techniques suitable for use in the following examples may be found as set out in Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology (Phillipp Gerhardt, R. G. E. Murray, Ralph N. Costilow, Eugene W. Nester, Willis A. Wood, Noel R. Krieg and G. Briggs Phillips, eds), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. (1994)) or by Thomas D. Brock in Biotechnology: A Textbook of Industrial Microbiology, Second Edition, Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass. (1989). All reagents, restriction enzymes and materials used for the growth and maintenance of bacterial cells were obtained from Aldrich Chemicals (Milwaukee, Wis.), DIFCO Laboratories (Detroit, Mich.), GIBCO/BRL (Gaithersburg, Md.), or Sigma Chemical Company (St. Louis, Mo.) unless otherwise specified.

Preparation of Phage Library

The phage library used in the present invention was purchased from New England BioLabs (catalog number E8110S, Ph.D.-12 Phage Display Peptide Library Kit). The kit is based on a combinatorial library of random peptide 12-mers fused to a minor coat protein (pIII) of M13 phage. The displayed peptide 12mer is expressed at the N-terminus of pill, i.e. after the signal peptide is cleaved the first residue of the coat protein is the fist residue of the displayed peptide. The library contains 2.7×10⁹ (100 μl) variants in the displayed epitope. A volume of 10 μl contains about 55 copies of each peptide sequence. To avoid introduce bias into the library, each initial round of experiments were carried out using the original library provided by the manufacture.

Sequencing of Phases

Random M13 phage plaques were picked and single plaque lysates were prepared following manufacture's instruction (New England Labs, Beverly, Mass.). The single stranded phage genome DNA was purified with Qiagene kit (QIAprep Spin M13 kit, Cat. No. 27704). The single stranded DNA were sequenced with −96 gill sequencing primer (5′-CCCTCATAGTTAGCGTAACG-3′). SEQ ID NO:33 The displayed peptide is located immediately after the signal peptide of gene III.

Multi-Sequence Analysis

Sequences from the phage display experiment were analyzed using software DNA Star (version 5.02) or ClustalW according to software instructions. The alignment provides similarities among the selected sequences and predict important functions of certain amino acid residues.

Example 1 Preparation of Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes designated CNT-7 were obtained from Yet-Ming Chiang, Department of Materials Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass. The nanotubes were prepared by heating SiC (silicon carbide) at 1700° C. under vacuum. Silicon “evaporated” from the sample and left behind the carbon, which formed folded structures of carbon including nanotubes.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes were purchased from CNI (Carbon Nanotechnology Incorporated, Houston, Tex.). These nanotubes were produced by a laser oven technique or a HiPCO (high-pressure carbon monoxide) process (P. Nikolaev et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 313, 91-97 (1999)).

The CNT-7 sample contained various carbon structures including multi-wall and single-wall carbon nanotubes whereas CNI samples were mostly single wall carbon nanotubes.

Example 2 Selection of Carbon Nanotube Binding Peptides

CNT-7 and CNI carbon nanotubes were suspended in Tris-Buffered-Saline with 0.1% Tween 20 (TBS-T) at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. The carbon nanotube solution was then sonicated by a Branson Sonifier model 450 (Branson Sonic Power Co., Danbury, Conn.) with power output setting between 4 and 5, duty cycle 70-80% for three times. Ten microliters of M13 phage library (containing about 10¹¹ phage) were added to 1 ml of carbon nanotubes. The mixture was incubated at room temperature with mild agitation for 60 minutes. Unbound phages were separated from the nanotube sample by high speed spin at 14,000 rpm (16,110×g) in an Eppendorf 5415C centrifuge (Brinkmann Instruments Inc., Westbury, N.Y.) for 10 minutes. Subsequently the phage/nanotube complex was washed 10 times each with 1 ml TBS-T in which concentration of Tween-20 increases according to the cycles of selection, as shown in the data below. For example, in one experiment the Tween 20 concentration was increased from 0.2% in round one, to 0.3% in round two, to 0.4% in round 4, to 0.5% in round 5, to 0.6% in round 6, to 0.7% in round 7, to 1% in round 8, to 2% in round 9, 3% in round 10, 6% in round 11 and 10% in round 12. After the last (tenth) washing step, the bound phages were eluted off by incubating with 0.5 ml of 0.25 M glycine-HCl, pH 3.0 for 10-15 minutes at room temperature. The phages and nanotubes were separated by centrifuging at 14,000 rpm (16,110×g) for 10 minutes, with the cleared supernatant containing the eluted phages. The presence and concentration of phages in the supernatant were determined by phage titering. Once the sample confirmed the presence of phages, they were used to inoculate E. coli for phage amplification, and the amplified phage sample was used as the “pool” for next round. In a typical experiment, the entire eluent was added to a 20 ml E. coli culture at early log phase. The culture was further incubated for 4.5 hours at 37° C. to allow phage to propagate. At the end of the incubation, the cultures were spin at 16,000×g for 10 minutes at 4° C. The phages in the cleared supernatant were precipitated with PEG/NaCl at 4° C. After centrifugation, the phages were resuspended in 200 μl PBS and the concentration was determined by titering. This sample is used subsequently as the stock for the next round experiment. To carry out the next round experiment, 10¹¹ phages were used as input “pool” and the selection process was repeated as described above with increased stringency for washing, i.e. increased concentration of Tween-20. Useful peptides were obtained by selection at detergent concentrations of 0.5% and higher and the amino acid sequences of these peptides are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 M13 peptide sequences for CNT-7 SEQ ID NO: Sequence  1. DPHHHWYHMHQH  2. HAHSQWWHLPYR  3. HAHSRRGHIQHR  4. HCHHPWGAWHTL  5. HCWNQWCSRHQT  6. HGNWSYWWSKPS  7. HHWHHWCMPHKT  8. HNWYHWWMPHNT  9. HNWYRWCIRHNN 10. HRWYRWSSRNQT 11. HSSWWLALAKPT 12. HWCAWWISSNQS 13. HWKHPWGAWDTL 14. HWSAWWIRSNQS 15. HWSPWHRPWYQP 16. HYSWYSTWWPPV 17. HYWWRWWMPNQT 18. KCHSRHDHIHHH 19. KSLSRHDHIHHH 20. KSRSRHDEIHHH 21. KYRSRHDHIHHH 22. QWHSRHDHIHHH 35. HNWYHWWPHNT 36. HWYKPYHFQSLT 37. SVSVGMKPSPRP 38. EAHPQTLGWQRP 39. HNAYWHWPPSMT

Binding of these peptides to CNT's is further confirmed by TEM micrographs as shown in FIG. 1, illustrating a number of the subject peptides bound to a single walled CNT.

Example 3 Structural and Functional Characterization of Nanotube-Binding Peptides

The following example illustrates the importance of conserved amino acids to the binding affinity of peptides for carbon nanotubes.

Alignment of the selected peptide sequences suggests strongly that histidine at position 1 and tryptophan at position 6 are important for binding. Further analysis of more than one hundred phage clones, shown below in Table 3, revealed that His and Trp are two dominant amino acids in the composition of peptides selected by the display. TABLE 3 Change Number % by % by Original relative to Amino Acids count weight frequency library (%) original (%) Charged: RKHYCDE 391 36.03 33.59 (SEQ ID NO: 29) Acidic: DE 37 2.84 3.18 Basic: KR 89 8.51 7.65 Polar: NCQSTY 305 22.51 26.20 (SEQ ID NO: 30) Hydrophobic: AILFW 376 37.62 32.3 (SEQ ID NO: 31) A 57 2.69 4.90 6.0 — C 6 0.41 0.52 0.5 0.52 D 35 2.67 3.01 2.8 3.01 E 2 0.17 0.17 3.1 0.17 F 5 0.49 0.43 3.3 0.43 G 30 1.13 2.58 2.6 2.58 H 217 19.73 18.64 6.3 — I 27 2.03 2.32 3.4 2.32 K 38 3.23 3.26 2.8 3.26 L 55 4.13 4.73 9.3 4.73 M 25 2.17 2.15 2.6 2.15 N 66 4.99 5.67 4.6 5.67 P 85 5.47 7.30 12.2 7.30 Q 37 3.14 3.18 5.1 3.18 R 51 5.28 4.38 4.7 4.38 S 97 5.60 8.33 10.0 8.33 T 57 3.82 4.90 11.1 4.9 V 6 0.39 0.52 3.9 0.52 W 226 27.90 19.42 2.2 — Y 42 4.54 3.61 3.6 3.61 B 0 0 0 Z 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 . Ter 0 0 0 1. Data is from analysis of 100 clones 2. Original library data is adapted from manufacturer's manual and is from analysis of 104 clones

Site-directed mutagenesis was used to introduce mutations in peptides SEQ ID NO:13 (HWKHPWGAWDTL) and SEQ ID NO:14 (HWSAWWIRSNQS) Trp->Ser at position 6, to produce peptides HWKHPSGAWDTL (SEQ ID NO:26) and HWSAWSIRSNQS (SEQ ID NO:27), respectively. The phages carrying these mutations were assayed for their binding activity against CNT-7 at detergent concentration 0.4% as described above. The mutation at Trp6 reduced binding to CNT-7 for both peptides. The data is shown in Table 4 below. The number of plaque forming units is charted for a control peptide (LPPSNASVADYS) SEQ ID NO:28 and peptides SEQ ID NO:13, 14 and mutant peptides SEQ ID NO: 26 and 27. The binding data shown in Table 4 confirms the critical role of Trp in binding to nanotubes. TABLE 4 Phage Pfu SEQ ID NO: 26 4.58 × 10⁶ SEQ ID NO: 27  5.4 × 10⁶ SEQ ID NO: 28  6.7 × 10⁶ SEQ ID NO: 13 15.9 × 10⁶ SEQ ID NO: 14 59.2 × 10⁶

Example 4 Effect of Peptide Binding on Populations of Nanotubes

The following example illustrates the ability of carbon nanotube binding peptides to disentangle carbon nanotube “ropes”.

Experiments were carried out with synthetic peptides and single-wall carbon nanotubes (CNI/Laser oven) and binding peptides sequence HWKHPWGAWDTLGGG [SEQ ID NO: 25]. This peptide was selected as described in Example 2 and represents the peptide as set forth in SEQ ID NO:13, with the addition of a poly-glycine tail.

At a concentration of 4 mg/ml peptide of SEQ ID NO:25 was seen to disperse the nanotube ropes as examined by HRTEM whereas the mutant peptide SEQ ID NO:26, containing a polyglycine tail HWKHPSGAWDTLGGG [SEQ ID NO:32] and a control peptide SEQ ID NO:28 did not disperse the nanotube at the same concentration. The results are shown in FIG. 2. Panel A of FIG. 2 is an electron micrograph of nanotubes ropes untreated with any peptide. Panel B of FIG. 2 is an electron micrograph of single walled nanotubes after treatment with the carbon nanotube binding peptide of SEQ ID NO:13 showing dispersement of the nanotubes. Panel C of FIG. 2 is an electron micrograph of single walled nanotubes after treatment with the peptide of SEQ ID NO:28, a control peptide having little or no nanotube binding affinity.

Example 5 Graphite-Cleaned Binding Peptides

In order to find peptides with specific binding to carbon nanotubes, phage display experiments were performed as described in Example 2 on CNT-7 carbon nanotube substrates using a “graphite-cleaned” phage library. The graphite-cleaned phage library was generated by first washing the complete phage library on a pyrolytic graphite substrate. The washed or cleaned library was thus denuded of phage that would bind to Graphite. Highly ordered pyrolytic Graphite (HOPG SPI-2, SPI Supplies, West Chester, Pa.) was attached to a petri dish and a fresh layer of graphite was exposed using a Scotch tape. About 10¹¹ pfu M13 phage in TBS-0.1% Tween-20® was added to the graphite substrate and allowed to sit for binding for 45-60 minutes at room temperature. Unbound phages were washed away with excess amount of (TBS-T) at defined concentrations of Tween-20®. Bound phages were eluted with Glycine-HCl buffer at pH 2.3. The unbound phage (graphite-cleaned library) were then used to perform phage display experiments on CNT-7 as described in Example 2. Individual phages were isolated and DNA sequences were obtained using standard molecular biology methods described above.

After four rounds of phage display on CNT-7 with the graphite-cleaned library (round 4 with 0.5% concentration of Tween-20®), two consensus sequences emerged. These are:

HHHHLRHPFWTH (SEQ ID NO:23) and WPHHPHMHTIR (SEQ ID NO:24)

The implication is that the binding of these sequences is specific to the CNT-7, as compared to a graphitic clone. The significance of the finding is in the close relationship between the graphene sheet that bounds freshly cleaved graphite, and the surface of carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotube surfaces are essentially curved or graphene sheets. As such, objects may bind both to carbon nanotubes and to graphite. Additional significance may be attached to those whose binding discriminates between the two. This result illustrates that peptides can recognize different allotropes of carbon.

Example 6 Peptide Facilitated Binding of CNT to Microspheres

Example 6 illustrates that microspheres coated with CNT binding peptides are effective in binding single walled nanotubes and forcing assembly of the microspheres.

Preparation of Phage-Coated Microspheres.

Purified phage clones were amplified. Anti-mouse antibody IgG-coated microspheres (seven microns in diameter from Bangs Laboratories, Inc, 9025 Technology Drive, Fishers Ind. 46038-2886) were coated with an anti-M13 monoclonal antibody (Amersham pharmacia biotech Inc. 800 Centennial Avenue PO Box 1327 Piscataway N.J. 08855). Purified phage clones were coated onto these microspheres in TBS buffer. The phage-coated microspheres were incubated overnight with 10% Triton-X-165 dispersed SWNTs 7.5 μg/ml in a dialysis tube against 1 L of TBS buffer containing 10 grams of Amberlite XAD-4 (Sigma, P.O. Box 14508 ST. Louis, Mo. 63178). The microspheres were then washed three times with water. The beads were examined under SEM.

Preparation of Peptide-Coated Microspheres.

Selected sequences were synthesized as free peptides, including, NH₂-HWKHPWGAWDTLGGG-COOH (SEQ ID NO:25) and NH₂-HWKHPWGAWDTL-COOH (SEQ ID NO:13). Amino-modified microspheres (0.66 microns in diameter from Bangs Laboratories, Inc, 9025 Technology Drive, Fishers Ind. 46038-2886) were cross-linked to synthetic peptides at the C terminus through an EDC linker (Pierce Inc. 3747 N. Meridian Road, P.O. Box 117, Rockford, Ill. 61105 Sigma, P.O. Box 14508 ST. Louis, Mo. 63178). The peptide-coated microspheres were incubated overnight with 10% Triton-X-165 dispersed SWNT 7.5 μg/ml in a dialysis tube against 1 L of TBS buffer containing 10 grams of Amberlite XAD-4. The microspheres were then washed three times with TBS buffer. The beads were examined under SEM.

Results of contacting CNT's with microspheres either coated with CNT binding phage or isolated peptide are illustrated in FIG. 3 a-d. FIG. 3(a) shows the surface of a microsphere coated with a control phage clone expressing peptide sequence NH₂-IDVESYKGTSMP-COOH. (SEQ ID NO:34). Clearly, there is no association of the carbon nanotubes with this surface. FIG. 3(b) shows the surface of a microsphere coated with the binding phage clone sequence NH₂—HWKHPWGAWDTL-COOH (SEQ ID NO:13). It demonstrates strong association between the phage and nanotube bundles. Similar results have been obtained with other nanotube-binding phage clones. FIG. 3(c), coated with the control peptide NH₂-LPPSNASVADYSGGG-COOH (SEQ ID NO:28), shows no association of microspheres with nanotubes. Indeed, the suspension of microspheres remained highly dispersed. FIG. 3(d) shows strong association between the microspheres coated with the binding peptide NH₂—HWKHPWGAWDTL-COOH (SEQ ID NO:13) and nanotubes. Essentially, the nanotubes cross-linked the microspheres, resulting in a loss of dispersion of the microspheres and formation of large clusters of microspheres.

Example 7 CMBP Generated to a Variety of Carbon Nanotube Substrates

This example illustrates that carbon nanotube binding peptides may be generated to a variety of carbon nanotube substrates including those made by the HiPCo process and those that have undergone various cleaning processes.

A series of experiments to select carbon nanotube binding peptides were performed as described in Example 2. The first substrate used was SWNTs from CNI prepared using the HiPCo process that was prepared only by acid cleaning, dispersion in toluene and drying to form a mat. Peptides resulting after the selection process are listed in SEQ. ID Nos:39-85.

The second substrate used in the selection process as described in Example 2 were MWNTs obtained from Yet-Ming Chiang, Department of Materials Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass. Peptides that were selected are listed in SEQ. ID Nos:1-4, 6, 8, 10-13, 15, 16, 18-22, 28, 36, 92, 114-147, and 177. The above example was repeated used fresh MWNTs obtained from the same source. Resulting peptides are listed in SEQ. ID Nos:94-113 and 177.

Graphite-cleaned MWNTs obtained from Yet-Ming Chiang, Department of Materials Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass. prepared as described in Example 5 and were also used as substrates. Resulting peptides are listed in SEQ. ID Nos:148-176. 

1-7. (canceled)
 8. A method of immobilizing a carbon nanotube comprising: a) immobilizing a carbon nanotube binding peptide having the general structure: N-M-C wherein: N is the N-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophilic; M is the median portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids, 75% of which are hydrophobic; and C is the C-terminal portion of the peptide having about 4 amino acids 75% of which are hydrophilic; and b) contacting a carbon nanostructure with the immobilized peptide of (a) whereby the nanostructure is immobilized.
 9. A method according to claim 8 wherein the carbon nanotube binding peptide has an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1-24, SEQ ID NOs:35-39, SEQ ID NOs:40-85, SEQ ID NOs:86-113, SEQ ID NOs:114-147, and SEQ ID NOs:148-177 or an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1-24, SEQ ID NOs:35-39, SEQ ID NOs:40-85, SEQ ID NOs:86-113, SEQ ID NOs:114-147, and SEQ ID NOs:148-177 wherein the sequence contains at least one amino acid substitution with a chemically equivalent amino acid. 10-22. (canceled) 